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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


C,  P.  HUWTINGTON 

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LECTURE 


A  l^T  I  F  I  C  I  A  L      Y 


IFICIAL       TLIGHT 


ACADEMY  OF   NATURAL   SCIENCES 

[  tmiTEHSITY 
San    Francisco,    California,    August    7th,    1876, 


WM.  G.  KRUEGER 


WITH  REFERENCE  TO  A  MODEL  OF  HIS  OWN  IXVEXTION. 


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LECTURE 


A:  E^T  I  F  I  C  I  A  L       Y 


IFICIAL       TLIGHT 


GIVEI^   BY  REQUEST  AT  THE 


ACADEMY  OF   NATURAL   SCIENCES 


San    Francisco,    California,    August    7th,    1876, 


WM.  G.  KRUEGER 


WITH  REFERENCE  TO  A  MODEL  OF  HIS  OWN  INVENTION. 


INDEX. 


No.  Page. 

1  Introduction 1 

2  History  and  Fable 2 

3  Discovery  of  the  Balloon 7 

4  Noted  Air  Voyages 8 

5  Absence  of  Danger 11 

6  Charm  of  ^rial  Travel 12 

7  ^rial  Voyages  Health  Promoting 15  ■ 

8  Parachutes 16 

9  The  Kite    17 

10  Balloons  Impracticable 18 

11  Reasons  why  the  Problem  has  remained  Unsolved 21 

12  Fundamental  Principles  in  Flight 23 

IB     Weight 24 

14  Surface 26 

15  Power 28 

16  Flying  Creatures,  their  Proportions,  Movements 31 

17  Mechanical  Practicability  of  Flight .  34 

18  Flying  Machines  of  the  Present,  their  defects 37 

19  The  Practical  Air  Ship  of  the  near  Future 43 

20  What  Prestation  will  Accomplish 48 

21  Closinor  Remarks 50 


Page   4,  line   4,   read  "  one   from   Koenigsberg,"  for  "  Koenigs- 
berg." 

Page  4,  line  18,  read  "  afterward,"  for  "  ago." 


SAILING  IN  THE  AIR. 


I.-INTRODUCTION. 


Gentlemen  of  the  Academy  : 

The  problem  of  artificial  flight  is  of  such  great  im- 
portance to  civilization  ;  so  interesting  and  fascinating ^ 
not  only  to  the  student,  but  to  every  one  ;  and  it  al- 
lows us  to  indulge  in  such  a  wide  field  for  speculation 
as  to  the  great  changes  which  will  be  wrought  by  the 
practical  solution  of  it  in  the  social,  political  and  com- 
mercial world,  that  I  must  beg  of  you  to  consider  only 
my  good  intentions  in  appearing  before  you,  and  par- 
don my  shortcomings  as  a  lecturer.  It  is  my  first  at- 
tempt, and  is  simply  undertaken  to  bring  the  subject 
more  understandingly  before  the  public,  that  they  may 
assist,  morally,  and  pecuniarily,  the  several  inventors 
who  are  wrestling  with  it  more  or  less  success- 
fully— some  rather  less.  If  only  one  inventor  in  a 
hundred  should  meet  with  flattering  results,  the  atten- 
tion bestowed  upon  all  will  be  repaid  a  thousand  fold 
by  that  one's  success. 


The  idea  of  sailing  through  the  air  in  a  flying  ma- 
chine is  not  new,  nor  such  an  absurd  one  as  is  gener- 
ally supposed  ;  and  it  is  indeed  important  to  investi- 
gate and  lay  it  before  the  pubhc  more  directly  than  has 
been  done  heretofore  through  the  medium  of  great, 
musty  and  long-winded  volumes.  If  found  to  seem 
practicable  and  feasible,  it  is  for  you,  gentlemen,  to  see 
that  the  future  great  State  of  California  shall  also  be 
ahead  in  this — one  of  the  greatest  and  most  important 
inventions  of  the  age — as  she  is,  and  has  been  in  many 
other  things  before. 

The  subject  has  really  been  taken  hold  of  in  a  thor- 
ough and  scientific  manner  only  the  last  few  years  ;  but 
with  such  earnestness  and  scientific  knowledge  and  in- 
telligence, not  only  by  the  foremost  and  principal  so- 
ciety for  the  advancement  of  the  art — the  Aeronautic 
Society  of  Great  Britain — to  whom,  really,  the  most 
credit  must  fall — but  in  every  civihzed  country  ;  and  so 
much  has  been  done  already  to  prove,  not  only  the 
possibihty  but  the  absolute  certainty  of  an  early  prac- 
tical solution  of  the  problem,  that  soon  we  will  see  the 
air  traversed  in  all  directions,  by  aspiring  man.  Many 
seeming  impossibilities  of  the  present,  need  only  time 
and  effort  to  become  realities  in  the  near  future. 


II.-HISTOKY  AND  FABLE. 


In  turning  our  thoughts    to  History,  reaching  back 
even  into  the  mazy  and  wonderful  ages  of  fable,  we  find 


that  from  time  immemorial  the  great  science  of  aeros- 
tation has  occupied  the  minds  of  philosophers  and  in- 
ventors. There  cd-n  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  known 
and  made  use  of  in  olden  times  in  isolated  cases,  but 
was  again  lost,  like  many  other  important   inventions. 

We  are  furnished  with  many  interesting  proofs  of 
this.  Old  Chinese,  Arabian  and  Hindu  fables  give  some 
beautiful  descriptions  of  serial  chariots,  in  which  wiz- 
ards, princes  and  fairies  sped  over  the  fertile  and  popu- 
lous plains  of  their  native  country,  disbursing  good  or 
evil,  according  to  their  disposition,  to  the  poor  devils 
crawling  in  the  dust  beneath  them.  The  Jews  had 
their  cherubim.  The  Assyrians  have  left  us  their 
winged  bulls ;  the  Greeks,  their  Sphinxes ;  while  the 
Roman  writers  describe  how  that  mythical  personage, 
Daedalus,  a  famous  Athenian  artificer,  and  builder  of 
the  Cretan  labyrinth,  constructed  wings  with  which  he 
flew  across  the  ^gian  Sea,  to  escape  the  resentment 
of  Minos.  But  his  son,  Icarus,  undoubtedly  of  his 
strength  giving  out,  fell  into  the  water  and  was  drown- 
ed. Their  nation  has  bequeathed  to  us  various  bas-re- 
liefs, illustrative  of  what  appear  well-proportioned 
wings. 

Archytos,  the  great  geometrician,  made  a  wooden 
dove  that  flew  like  a  natural  one,  and  the  famous  Ger- 
man astronomer,  John  Mueller,  who  died  suddenly  in 
Rome,  at  the  age  of  forty,  in  1476,  and  whose  mem- 
ory was  celebrated  last  month  in  Germany,  constructed 
an  artificial   eagle,  which  flew  out  to  greet   the  Em- 


peror,  Charles  Y,  when  he  visited  Nuremberg.  This 
Mueller  was  more  widely  known  by  the  assumed  name 
of  "Regiomontanus," — the  "  Kingshiller" — that  is, 
^'  Koenigsberg,"  a  small  village  in  the  heart  of  Ger- 
many ;  the  custom  of  the  times  being  for  learned  men 
to  adopt  the  latin  name  of  their  birthplace.  He  in- 
vented the  almanac,  and  prepared  the  first  astronom- 
ical tables,  by  the  aid  of  which  mariners,  who,  up  to- 
that  late  day  could  only  make  coasting  voyages,  were 
enabled  to  trust  themselves  to  the  open  sea,  with  some 
degree  of  assurance  ;  and  Columbus  was  among  the 
earliest  to  use  these  tables,  twenty  years  afterwards,  on 
his  first  discovery  voyage  to  America. 

Another  German,  a  young  watchmaker's  apprentice^ 
constructed  a  flying  machine,  with  which  he,  when 
showing  the  same  to  his  ignorant  townspeople,  flew 
away  to  escape  mobbing.  His  bones  and  pieces  of  the 
machine  were  found  some  years  ago  in  a  wild  and  iso- 
lated part  of  the  Black  Forest.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century  Giovanni  Battista  Dantes,  of  Per- 
ugia, flew  several  times  over  the  Thrasimenian  Sea  ; 
he  certainly  must  have  been  at  a  considerable  elevation^ 
for  he  fell  on  a  church  steeple  and  broke  a  leg.  An- 
other account,  particularly  noticed  in  history,  is  that  of 
a  man  who  flew  high  in  the  air  in  the  City  of  Rome, 
upder  the  reign  of  Nero,  but  lost  his  life  in  the  descent. 

In  ''  Astra  Castra,"  we  read  that  soon  after  Bacon's 
time,  projects  were  instituted  to  train  up  children  in  the 
exercise  of  flying  with  artificial  wings,  and  considerable 


progress  was  made  ;  by  the  combined  effort  of  running- 
and  flying  they  were  enabled  to  skim  over  the  surface, 
as  it  were,  with  incredible  speed.  This  same  Roger  Ba- 
con, an  eminent  philosopher  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  possessed  of  the  very  highest  genius  and  ability, 
whose  ideas  and  knowledge,  like  Franklin's,  were  many 
hundred  years  ahead  of  his  age,  descants,  in  one  of  his 
works,  in  glowing  language,  on  the  practicability  of 
constructing  engines  that  could  navigate  the  air.  He 
accomplished  wonderful  things  in  his  day,  and  was  ac- 
cused of  holding  communion  with  the  devil,  who  was 
quite  an  important  personage  in  those  times.  His  writ- 
ings were  interdicted,  and  himself  locked  up  to  prevent 
closer  acquaintanceship  of  his  readers  with  the  afore- 
said friend. 

About  the  Confessor's  time,  a  monk,  Elmirus,  in 
Spain,  flew  often,  by  means  of  a  pair  of  wings,  many 
miles  from  high  elevations.  Cuperus,  in  his  treatise 
on  ''  The  Excellency  of  Man,"  contends  that  it  is  prac- 
ticable for  human  beings  to  attain  the  faculty  of  flying. 
He  asserts  that  Leonardo  da  Yinci,  the  great  painter  of 
the  ''  Lord's  Supper,"  and  other  highly  prized  works  of 
art,  practiced  it  successfully.  The  reasoning  of  the 
great  John  Wilkins,  Lord  Bishop  of  Chester,  who 
died  in  1672,  embodies  the  sentiments  and  principles 
of  all  these  on  the  subject  even  stronger.  In  his  work 
on  "  Mechanical  Motion,"  he  treats  expressly  on  artifi- 
cial flight,  and  conceives,  in  the  sixth  chapter,  the  fram- 
ing of  such  '''  volitant  automata  "  very  easy  ;  and  says 


that  the  time  will  come  when  men  will  call  for  their 
wings  when  about  to  make  a  journey,  as  they  do  now 
for  their  boots  and  spurs. 

Lastly,  in  the  "Journal  de  Savans,"  of  the  12th  of 
September,  1678,  an  account  is  given  of  one  Besnier, 
a  locksmith  of  Sable,  France,  who  succeeded  in  flying.. 
But  as  his  machine  was  extremely  primitive — the  wings 
consisting  only  of  four  rectangular  surfaces,  one  at  the 
end  of  each  of  two  poles,  which  passed  over  the  shoul- 
der of  the  operator,  and  were  worked  alternately  up 
and  down — the  inventor  could  only  avail  himself  of 
their  aid  in  progressively  raising  himself  from  one 
hight  to  another,  until  an  elevated  position  was  reached^ 
when  he  could  glide  through   the  air  a  long  distance. 

M^ny  more  cases  could  be  cited.  Some  ended  dis- 
astrously ;  others,  because  of  the  apathy,  distrust,  ig- 
norance, and  superstition  of  the  people,  were  lost  sight 
of  again;  while  some,  perhaps  the  most  practical  ones 
and  of  which  we  find  many  indications  in  old  writings^ 
were  never  made  known  for  selfish  reasons.  Such  has 
been  the  fate  of  this — one  of  the  most  interesting  pro- 
blems— almost  up  to  the  present  time.  We  were,  per- 
haps, not  prepared  sufficiently,  to  receive  the  great 
boon.  We  had  to  have  the  printing  press,  steam,  and 
electricity  first,  before  we  could  attempt  this  next 
great  step  towards  a  higher  civihzation. 


7 
III -DISCOVERY  OF  THE  BALLOON. 


Although  it  is  well  understood  now  by  most  scientific 
men,  that  the  principles  upon  w^hich  ballooning  rests, 
will  scarcely  form  any  part  in  the  solution  of  the  pro- 
blem of  aerial  navigation;  yet,  when,  in  1782.  the 
brothers,  Mongolfier,  in  France,  made  the  first  success- 
ful experiments  with  small  paper  balloons,  filled  with 
heated  air,  it  was  thought  that  the  key  to  that  wonder- 
ful art  had  been  found  ;  many  applied  themselves  to  its 
improvement  ;  and  the  next  year  already  saw  gass  bal- 
loons on  a  much  larger  scale. 

The  first  passengers,  who  had  the  honor  of  being 
sent  up  into  the  realms  of  space,  were  a  sheep,  a  cock 
and  a  duck ;  and  as  their  safe  descent  proved  highly 
satisfactory,  the  well-known  French  savan,  Pilatre  de 
Rozier,  tried  the  same  experiment  shortly  afterwards 
with  great  success,  reaching  a  hight  of  nearly  two 
miles.  The  glowing  description  of  his  experience 
raised  the  excitement  of  all  classes  to  fever  heat.  Nu- 
merous day  and  night  ascensions  were  made  by  diplo- 
mats, distinguished  naturalists,  professors  of  note, 
scientific  women  and  gymnastic  aspirants,  and  their 
journeys  soon  became  more  daring  and  extended  to 
wider  fields. 


IV -NOTED  AIR  VOYAGES. 


Blanchard,  the  supposed  inventor  of  the  parachute, 
with  the  American,  Dr.  Jeffries,  were  the  first  to  cross 
the  channel  from  England  to  France.  M.  Charles,  the 
inventor  of  the  gas  balloon,  and  one  of  the  earliest  and 
most  enthusiastic  advocates  of  aerostation,  made  exten- 
sive voyages.  Madame  Thible,  of  Lyons,  was  the  first 
of  her  sex  who  trusted  herself  to  the  elastic  element. 
Crosbie^  who  passed  over  the  sea  from  Ireland  to  Eng- 
land, came  near  losing  his  life^  for,  the  balloon,  being 
struck  with  great  force  by  an  adverse  current  of  air, 
and  most  of  the  gas  escaping,  tore  over  the  raging 
waters  at  a  fearful  speed,  until  the  courageous  man  was 
rescued,  near  the  :-  nghsh  coast,  by  a  ship  happening  in 
his  way.  But  the  view  which  he  had  enjoyed,  seeing 
both  countries  at  once,  was  subhme  beyond  description, 
and  compensated  him  for  all  the  danger.  He  had  been 
at  such  a  bight  that,  although  the  July  sun  melted 
everything  below,  his  ink  was  a  lump  of  ice,  and  the 
quicksilver  in  the  instruments  had  sunk  almost  out  of 
sight. 

The  battle  of  Fleurus,  in  1794,  was  won  by  the 
French  over  the  Austrians  principally  through  the  aid 
of  balloon  reconnoitering;  and  similar  service  was  occa- 
sionally performed  by  the  balloon  in  our  own  war.  The 
favorably  known  Italian,  Count  Zambeccari,  who  added 
many  improvements  to  this  art,  and  created  great  in- 


terest  in  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  made  an 
ascension,  in  1803,  with  two  friends,  at  Bologna.  The 
three  ahghted  in  the  Adriatic  sea  and  were  picked  up 
by  fishermen,  while  the  balloon,  free  from  weight,  rose 
again  and  was  carried  by  the  wind  to  the  Turkish  fort 
,Yihacz,  where  the  commander,  believing  it  a  present 

*  sent  from  heaven,"  had  it  cut  up  in  small  pieces  and 
divided  amongst  his  friends  as  amulets.  But  quite  a 
''^reverse  opinion"  was  generally  entertained  by  most 
•of  the  ignorant  Christian  country  people,  when  the 
huge  monster  happened  to  fall  amongst  them  for  the 
jfirst  time;  and  their  comparison  of  it  to  the  '^evil  one" 
is  excusable  when  we  consider  the  peculiar  smell  of 
the  escaping  gas,  after  their  attack  upon  it  with  pitch- 
forks and  similar  agricultural  implements. 

Among  other  remarkable  ascensions  is  that  of  Gruy 
Lussac,  who  reached  the  prodigious  hight  of  nearly  four 
and  a  half  miles.  This  was  exceeded,  though,  by 
another  scientific  aeronaut,  James  Glaisher,  in  1862, 
who,  with  a  companion,  mounted  the  great  altitude  of 
seven  miles — over  86,000  feet;  but  as  he  was  insensible 
for  some  minutes  after  reaching  the  elevation  of  29,000 
feet,  the  highest  ever  attained  by  human  beings,  their 
calculations  could  only  be  approximated.  The  mercury 
in  the  hygrometer — a  delicate  instrument  for  measuring 
the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere — ^had  fallen  below  the 
scale,  while  they  were  rising  more  than  1000  feet  per 
minute.  There  are  instances  of  balloons  that  have 
shot  upwards  at  the  rate  of  .fifty  feet  per  second,  or 


10 

much  over  half  a  mile  per  minute;  but,  generally,  even 
twenty  feet  per  second  is  a  rare  occurrence.  And  hei-e^ 
might  be  mentioned  that,  since  the  late  serious  loss  of 
several  French  scientists  by  asphyxia,  or  cold  on  their 
unfortunate  ascension,  .the  problem  of  maintaining  life 
in  the  highest  regions  of  the  atmosphere  has  been 
solved  in  France.  With  a  certain  apparatus,  man 
could  manage  to  live  comfortably  nearly  ten  miles 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  while,  ordinarily,  two  miles 
is  the  most. 

As  to  horizontal  speed,  perhaps  the  fastest  time  on 
record  was  nade  by  Garnerin  and  Snowdon,  from  Lon- 
don to  Colchester,  some  eighty  miles,  in  one  hour,  or 
about  110  feet  per  second,  almost  swifter  than  an  eagle 
flies;  and  another  balloon  went  from  Paris  across  the 
Alps,  to  the  vicinity  of  Rome,  in  twenty- two  hours, 
making  over  fifty  miles  per  hour,  considering  its  zig-zag 
travel.  The  reason  for  such  great  speed  is,  that  the 
different  air  currents  travel  far  faster  in  the  upper  re- 
gions than  below,  where  the  velocity  of  the  wind  is 
seldom  over  twenty  miles  per  hour;  and  yet,  were  it 
.  not  for  the  continually  changing  scenery,  the  aeronaut 
would  imagine  himself  stationary. 

The  shortest  trip,  perhaps,  in  the  annals  of  this  art, 
both  as  to  hight  and  distance,  was  made,  a  few  years 
ago,  by  a  gymnast,  at  Woodward's  Gardens,  that  most 
beautiful  pleasure  resort  in  this  city.  The  little  dis- 
obhging  monster  went  lazily,  and  with  great  difficulty, 
over  the  fence  and  capsized  promptly  on  the  other  side, 


11 

leaving  the  trapeze -man  hanging,  by  the  seat  of  his  un- 
mentionables, on  the  top  of  it  in  an  uncomfortable  po- 
sition, but  no  bones  were  broken. 


V.-ABSENCE  OF  DANGER. 


It  is  erroneous  to  suppose  that  serial  voyages  are 
fraught  with  even  ordinary  danger  ;  on  the  contrary, 
travel  by  sea  and  land  is  far  more  so  ;  for,  although 
thousands  of  assensions  have  been  made,  but  very  few 
persons  have  met  with  accidents,  in  fact,  a  less  number 
by  far  comparatively,  than  by  any  other  profession  or 
mode  of  locomotion;  and,  whenever  such  has  happened, 
gross  carelessness  or  ignorance  was  often  the  cause. 

During  the  late  Franco- German  war,  over  sixty  bal- 
loons, many  but  indifferently  constructed,  left  Paris, 
during  the  siege,  with  some  one  hundred  and  eighty 
persons  and  nearly  three  mihions  of  letters.  All 
reached  a  point  of  safety. 

Professor  Wise,  the  most  noted  Amertcan  aeronaut, 
has  made,  during  the  last  forty  years,  nearly  five  hun- 
dred voyages,  and  one  in  particular,  in  1859,  of  nearly 
1200  miles — perhaps  the  longest  on  record — with  three 
companions,  from  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  to  New  York  State. 
This  trip  was  made  partly  in  the  midst  of  a  tornado, 
while  above  Lake  Erie,  during  which  time  some  twenty 
sailing  crafts  succumbed  to  the  effects  of  the  storm. 


*12 

jet  the  intrepid  seronauts  alighted  in  safety.  M, 
Green,  who  was  the  first  to  use  coal  gas,  instead  of 
pure  hydrogen,  and  has  also  made  hundreds  of  success- 
ful ascensions,  was  carried  from  London  to  Weilburg, 
in  the  central  part  of  Germany,  about  seven  hundred 
miles  in  eight  hours,  without  the  slightest  mishap. 
Lastly,  Arban,  crossed  the  Alps  from  Marseilles  to  Tur- 
in, four  hundred  miles,  in  stormy  weather  during  the 
night.  Mont  Blanc  to  the  left,  on  a  level  with  the  top  of 
which  he  was,  resembled  an  immense  block  of  crystal- 
sparkling  with  a  thousand  fires ;  while  the  moon  occa. 
sionally  seemed  to  have  borrowed  the  hght  of  the  sun. 


VI.-CHARM  OF  ^RIAL  TRAVEL. 


Nothing  can  equal  the  beauty  of  an  aerial  voyage, 
that  most  wonderful,  easy  and  luxurious  mode  of  loco- 
motion, with  its  entire  absence  of  dizziness — this  sen- 
sation being  lost  with  the  separation  from  earth,  as 
soon  as  the  last  cord,  which  unites  us  with  the  world 
below,  is  cut. 

In  rising  from  the  ground,  the  feelings  are  absorbed 
in  the  novelty  and  magnificence  of  the  spectacle  pre- 
sented, while  the  ears  are  saluted  with  the  buzz  of  dis- 
tant sound  until  the  clouds  are  reached,  when  all  is 
still  as  death.  The  scene  is  subUme.  Aroimd  and 
beneath,  the  clouds  roll  in  magnificent  grandeur.     They 


13- 

form  pyramids,  castles,  reefs,  icebergs,  ships  and  towers, 
and  again  dissolve  into  chaos.  The  half  obscured  sun 
shedding  his  mellow  hght  upon  the  picture,  gives  it  a 
rich  and  dazzUng  lustre.  Reverence  for  the  work  of 
nature,  the  solemn  stillness,  an  admiration  indiscriba-. 
ble^  all  combined,  seem  to  make  a  sound  of  praise. 

The  earth,  which  is  never  lost  sight  of  at  any  hight,. 
except  clouds  interfere  or  night  sets  in,  seems  to  be  con^ 
cave,  like  the  inside  of  a  flattish  hollow  globe,  instead 
of  the  outside,  as  would  naturally  be  supposed.  The 
reason  for  this  optical  delusion  is,  that  the  horizon  ap- 
pears on  a  level  with  the  aeronaut,  while  the  distance 
downwards  remains  unaltered,  making  the  surface  be- 
low appear  like  a  valley.  The  earth  presents  the  pano- 
ramic view  of  an  immense  map,  such  as  the  enchanted 
Alladdin  must  have  enjoyed.  The  coloring,  desig- 
nating the  various  products  of  the  soil,  is  lively  and 
exquisite.  Variegated  grass-plats,  the  golden  tinge  of 
waving  grain  fields,  the  more  sombre  foliage  of  the 
trees,  the  glossy  surface  of  the  water  dazzling  in  the 
sunbeams,  with  occasional  white  specks  for  sailing  craft; 
the  innumerable  villages,  with  tastefully  decorated  and 
tinny,  toy-like  houses,  the  numerous  roads  tortuously 
spreading  over  the  surface  and  looking  like  chalk  lines 
on  a  gaudy  carpet,  fairy-like  carriages  seemingly  drawn 
by  mice  and  guided  by  liBputian  little  things.  Such  is 
the  beauty  of  this  glorious  earth.  Yet,  when  moun- 
tains appear  like  ant  hills,  and  Niagara  a  neat  little 
cascade  in   a  pleasure    garden — instead  of  the  raging 


14 

grandeur,  only  a  frothy  bubble — man  must  be  forcibly 
reminded  that  he  is  but  the  minutest  animalcule,  and 
not  of  so  much  importance  as  he  presumes  himself  to 
be. 

No  less  impressive  is  the  scene  at  night.  The  sub- 
lime exhibition  in  the  vast  solitude  and  darkness  of 
night  creates  the  most  stupendous  effect  upon  the  lonely 
aeronaut. 

The  earth's  surface,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach;  ab- 
solutely teems  with  the  scattered  fires  of  a  watchful  popu- 
lation, and  exhibits  a  starry  spectacle  below,  that  rivals 
in  brilliancy  the  lustre  of  the  firmament  above.  A  city 
looming  up  in  the  distant  horizon  gradually  appears 
to  blaze  like  a  vast  conflagration.  On  drawing  near, 
every  street  is  marked  out  by  its  particular  line  of  fires ; 
the  forms  and  posititons  of  the  theatres,  squares  and 
markets  are  indicated  by  the  presence  of  larger  and 
more  irregular  accumulations  of  li^ht,  and  the  faint 
murmurs  of  a  busy  population  still  actively  engaged  in 
the  pursuits  of  pleasure  or  the  avocation  of  gain ;  all 
together  combined  form  a  picture,  which,  for  beauty 
and  effect,  can  not  be  conceived. 

Again,  higher  up,  or  when  clouds  intervene,  the  sky, 
at  all  times  darker  when  viewed  from  an  elevation, 
seems  almost  black  with  the  intensity  of  night;  while, 
by  contrast,  the  stars  redoubled  in  their  lustre,  shine 
like  sparks  of  the  whitest  silver,  scattered  upon  the 
jetty  dome  around.  Nothing  can  exceed  this  density 
of  night.     Not  a  single  object  of  terrestrial  nature  can 


15 

anywhere  be  distinguished,  and  an  unfathomable  abyss 
of  ^^  darkness  visible"  encompasses  one  on  every  side. 
It  seems  like  cleaving  the  way  through  an  intermina- 
ble mass  of  black  marble,  and  a  light  lowered  from 
these  dizzy  hights  appears  to  absolutely  melt  its  way 
down  into  the  frozen  bosom  of  the  surrounding  inkiness- 
The  cold  is  here  intense. 


VII.-^RIAL  VOYAGES  HEALTH  PRO- 
MOTING. 


But  while  the  charm  of  floating  in  the  air  is  so  fasci- 
nating these  delightful  ascensions  will  be  even  more 
beneficial  in  sanitary  respects. 

Atmospheric  pressure,  exerting  nearly  30,000  pounds 
upon  a  human  being  of  full  growth,  has  much  to  do 
with  the  mechanical  functions  of  life.  At  a  moderate 
elevation,  one- tenth  of  this  weight  can  be  reheved,  and 
at  greater  hights,  even  one-third,  as  balloon  experi- 
ments have  sufiiciently  proven.  This  pressure,  then, 
diminishing  upon  the  muscular  system,  allows  it  to  ex- 
pand. The  lungs  at  once  become  more  voluminous 
and  breathing  purer  air  ;  the  freedom  with  which  all 
the  circulating  fluids  of  the  system  are  allowed  to  act 
in  the  rare  atmosphere,  intensily  quicken  the  animal 
and  mental  faculties  ;  the  no\  elty  of  the  voyage,  and 
the  most   sublime  grandeur  opening   to  the    eye  and 


16 

mind  of  the  invalid  ;  all  assist  to  promote  health,  im- 
part new  life,  inspire  ideas  and  invigorate  soul  and 
body. 


VIIL-PAKACHUTES. 


This  simple  contrivance  often  forms  an  adjunct  to 
balloons.  Its  appearance  is  generally  tnat  of  a  huge 
family  umbrella  of  revolutionary  times.  It  is  likewise 
concave  underneath,  because  such  form,  above  all 
others,  condenses  a  column  of  atmosphere  more  rapidly 
and  retards  its  velocity  in  the  descent  immensely. 
The  ribs  are  generally  of  whale-bone  or  bamboo  cov- 
ered with  strong  domestic  muslin,  and  a  light  wicker 
basket  is  fastened  some  twelve  feet  underneath  for  the 
aeronaut,  who  may  cut  himself  loose  from  the  balloon 
with  perfect  safety  at  any  hight,  and  descend  slowly  to 
the  ground,  if  the  parachute  is  strongly  made  and  per- 
haps fourteen  feet  across  when  open. 

By  giving  it  a  slight  inclination,  it  can  be  made  to 
descend,  sliding-like,  a  long  distance  from  the  vertical 
point ;  and  some  of  the  flying  machines  we  read  of 
have  likely  been  only  a  modified  form  of  the  parachute. 
The  nautilus  on  the  ocean  moves  on  the  principle  of  it, 
the  pollen  of  plants  is  carried  from  one  place  to  another 
by  this  mode  ;  so  the  flying  squirrel  moves  in  parabolic 
curves  from  tree  to  tree  and  even  crosses  rivers  when 


17 

the  nut  crop  fails  ;  as  also  the  flying  tree-frog  slants 
down  long  distances  from  high  trees.  This  animal  has 
a  considerable  expansion  of  skin,  connecting  the  toes 
only,  and  which  looks  as  if  on  its  four  legs  were  fast- 
ened those  short,  broad  and  light  snow-shoes,  known 
as  Webfeet,  used  in  our  northern  Territories  in  winter. 
It  is,  therefore,  called  a  ^'webfoot"  frog,  but  from 
which  must  not  be  inferred  that  it  is  ^'an  Oregonian/' 
for  it  is  encountered  so  far  only  in  Bqrneo. 


IX -THE  KITE. 


Every  one  is  undoubtedly  acquainted  with  the  ex- 
ceedingly simple  mechanism — invented  when  boys 
commenced  to  exist — for  the  enjoyment  of  one  of  the 
most  pleasant  pastimes — kite  flying.  It  is  indulged  in 
mostly  during  the  fall,  and,  perhaps,  a  trifle  more  so  in 
the  rural  districts  than  in  the  cities,  because  of  the 
greater  freedom  of  room  which  stubble  fields  and 
meadows  allow. 

But  attention  has  also  been  given  to  the  employment 
of  this  kind  of  aerostation  as  a  means  of  support  and 
conveyance  ;  and  kites  have  been  made  as  much  as 
thirty  feet  high,  looking  more  like  buoyant  sails  than 
boyish  playthings,  and  exerting  an  immense  power  of 
waftage.  Loaded  wagons  have  been  drawn  over 
turnpikes  j  persons  have  frequently  been  carried  up  in 


18 

the  air  by  huge  kites  ;  and,  in  some  parts  of  Europe, 
experiments  have  been  made  to  signal  and  save  ship- 
wrecked people  on  dangerous  coasts,  proving  suffi- 
ciently that  the  kite  can  be  made,  even  in  its  present 
primitive  state,  to  be  quite  useful. 

In  this  connection  it  may  "not  be  amiss"  to  state 
that  the  first  person  known  to  have  ascended — some 
eighty  years  ago,  as  the  ""  History  of  Kite  Carriage  " 
informs  us,  'Svas  a  Miss" — a  young  lady  of  some  one 
hundred  and  twenty-six  pounds,  avoirdupois.  She 
was  seated  in  a  chair  underneath  the  gigantic  structure 
which  weighed  nearly  thiuty  pounds,  had  a  surface  of 
about  sixty  square  feet,  and  rose  most  majestically  to 
a  hight  of  six  hundred  feet — an  incontrovertible  in- 
stance of  the  superior  courage  of  the  gentler  sex  over 
man. 

The  kite  is  maintained  in  the  air  by  two  opposing 
forces  :  the  impelling  power  of  the  wind — lifting  it  by 
striking  against  it  at  an  angle,  and  the  restraining 
powers  of  the  string — motive-force  and  gravitation 
combined ;  so  that  in  the  kite,  above  all,  we  possess  in 
a  crude  form,  the  three  principles  requisite  for  artifi- 
cial flight :  the  plain,  weight  and  propelling  force.  By 
improving  upon  the  kite,  therefore,  we  will  arrive  at 
the  practical  solution  of  the  problem  of  artificial  flight. 


X.-BALLOONS  IMPRACTICABLE. 


It  is  not  creditable  to  the  present  age  that  the  pro- 


19 

blem  of  aerial  navigation  has  not  been  solved.  But 
one  of  the  causes  has  undoubtedly  been  the  discovery 
of  the  balloon,  which  has  retarded  this  science  for 
nearly  a  century  by  misleading  men's  minds,  and  caus- 
ing them  to  look  for  a  solution  of  the  problem  by  the 
aid  of  a  machine  lighter  than  air,  and  which  has  no 
analogue  in  nature. 

Weight  is  one  of  three  essential  factors  in  flight,  for 
a  light  body  cannot  be  propelled  through  a  heavier  one. 
Hence  all  attempts  at  driving  and  guiding  the  balloons 
have  signally  failed.  This  arises  from  the  vast  extent 
of  surface  which  it  necessarily  presents,  rendering  it  a 
fair  conquest  to  every  breeze  that  blows,  and  because 
the  power  which  animates  it  is  a  mere  lifting  power, 
which  acts  in  a  vertical  line.  The  balloon,  conse- 
quently, rises  through  the  air  ia  opposition  to  the  law 
of  gravity,  by  which  all  flying  creatures  are  governed, 
very  much  as  a  dead  bird  falls  downward  in  accordance 
with  it.  Having  no  hold  upon  the  air,  this  cannot  be 
employed  as  a  fulcrum  for  regulating  its  movements, 
and  hence  the  cardinal  difficulty  of  ballooning  as  an  art 
of  locomotion  and  its  uncertainty,  because  the  air-cur- 
rents cannot  be  regulated.  A  balloon  starting  from 
San  Francisco  might  be  intended  for  New  York,  but, 
against  the  desire  of  the  passengers,  alight  in  China  or 
the  Canibal  Islands,  which  would  be  rather  disagree- 
able. 

It  is  simply  astonishing  to  hear  of  people  trying,  year 
after  year,  to  propel  elongated  or  cigar-shaped  balloons 


20 

with  a  car  underneath,  and  a  screw-propeller,  of  course 
— an  experiment  which  was  tried,  unsuccessfully^ 
forty  years  ago.  But  this  is  generally  the  first  con- 
ceived project  of  an  aspirant  for  fame  who  commences 
to  think  on  the  subject,  and  soon  fancies  himself  the 
happy  possessor  of  the  secret;  yet  what  a  very  small 
amount  of  science  is  necessary  to  show  its  fallacy.  In 
fact,  all  kinds  of  propositions  for  the  propulsion  of  bal- 
loons have  been  advanced  and  experimented  upon,  but 
scarcely  any  improvements  have  been  made  since  the 
first  five  years  after  its  invention;  proving,  perhaps, 
more  conclusively  than  anything  else,  that  the  practical 
propulsion  of  balloons  is  an  impossibility. 

The  most  remarkable  idea  in  this  respect,  was  un- 
doubtedly that  of  Teissol.  He  flattered  himself  to  be 
able  to  train  geese  or  other  birds  to  pull  a  balloon  by 
being  hitched  to  it,  while  the  conductor,  in  a  car  un- 
derneath, was  to  direct  their  movements  by  the  aid  of 
a  long  pole.  Although  the  training  of  birds  is  not  so 
ridiculous  as  it  may  seem,  yet  he  found  that  geese,  if 
not  too  tough,  answer  the  purpose  of  a  good  roast 
much  better.  And  another  genius,  still  more  unique  ^ 
long  before  balloons  were  invented,  conceived  the  idea 
that  air,  like  water,  must  have  a  defined  limit,  and  that 
it  was  possible  to  sail  on  its  surface  like  ships  on  the 
ocean.  He  did  not  state  how  to  get  up  there,  but  lost 
no  time  in  inducing  the  King  of  Portugal  to  forbid 
everyone,  under  penalty  of  death,  to  use  said  inven- 
tion. So  far,  no  one  has  come  in  conflict  with  that 
law. 


21 

Yet,  although  the  balloon  is  impracticable  as  a 
means  of  transportation,  it  should  by  no  means  be  dis- 
carded, for  it  can  be  made  very  useful  for  scientific  and 
other  observations,  to  give  pleasure  to  thousands  of 
people  by  fanciful  ascensions,  and  not  the  least,  to  serve, 
as  stated  before,  sanitary  purposes,  when  captive  and 
well  secured.  But  instead  of  lowering  and  elevating 
it  continually,  as  is  being  done  at  present,  and  which  occa- 
sions danger  and  great  loss  of  time  and  money,  a  con- 
trivance should  be  made  by  which  persons  could  safely, 
and  without  interruption,  be  carried  up  and  down  un- 
derneath parachutes. 


XL-REASONS  WHY   THE   PROBLEM 
HAS  REMAINED  UNSOLVED. 


The  slow  progress  made,  and  the  unsatisfactory  state 
of  the  question,  notwithstanding  the  large  and  uni- 
■    wersal  share  of  attention  bestowed  upon  the  subject 
from  earliest  times,  must  be  attributed  to  a  variety  of 

(causes,  the  most  prominent  of  which  are — - 
"  The  great  difficulty  of  the  problem. 
"  The  incapacity  on  the  one  hand,  or  theoretical  ten- 
dencies on  the  other,  of  those  who  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  its  elucidation. 

"The  lack  of  means  of  inventors  generally,  and  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  the    same   to   experiment  and 


22 

carry  out  their  ideas  even  after  the  completion  of  their 
invention.  Hence  so  many  failures  amongst  this  class, 
while  men  of  genius  in  the  literary  or  most  other  fields 
require  but  Kttle  pecuniary  outlay  to  succeed. 

"  The  stolid  indifference  of  an  unthinking  commu- 
nity, which  so  often  proves  the  deathblow  to  the  mind 
of  the  philosophical  inquirer,  and  whose  aim  is  con- 
demned and  pronounced  as  Sdsionary/  absurd  and 
incapable  of  realization,  instead  of  receiving  that  sup- 
port and  encouragement  which  is  so  necessary  to  suc- 
cess." 

Flight  has  therefore  been  unusually  unfortunate  in 
its  votaries.  It  has  been  cultivated  on  the  one  hand 
by  profound  thinkers,  especially  mathematicians,  who- 
have  worked  out  innumerable  theorems,  but  have 
never  submitted  them  to  test  of  experiment ;  and  on 
the  other  by  either  uneducated  charletans  who,  despis- 
ing the  abstractions  of  science  entirely,  have  made  the- 
most  wild  and  ridiculous  attempts  at  a  practical  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  ;  or  inventors,  who,  desirous  to- 
triumph  over  some  of  the  acknowledged  difficulties  of 
propulsion  and  navigation,  but  for  want  of  organiza- 
tion or  pecuniary  support,  or  being  unacquainted  with 
preceding  failures  in  the  same  direction,  or  ignorant  of 
some  one  condition  demanded  by  the  peculiar  nature- 
of  the  experiment,  but  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to- 
success,  have  also  failed,  thus  causing  still  greater 
doubt  in  the  public  mind,  and,  consequently,  less  sup- 
port to  inventors  in  the  same  direction  afterwards. 


23 

A  common  error  prevails,  that  models  are  essential 
to  help  the  inventor.  The  province  of  the  model  is  to 
explain  ihe  invention  to  others  after  it  has  been  made, 
and  not  to  assist  the  inventor.  Except  in  very  re- 
stricted limits  they  have  been  found  to  be  almost 
useless,  and  most  of  our  valuable  discoveries  have  been 
made  and  carried  out  without  their  aid.  Watt's  first 
condensing  engine  had  a  cylinder  of  eighteen  inches 
diameter,  or  about  the  average  size  now  in  use.  It  is 
so  with  agricultural  and  other  practical  inventions  and 
applies  particularly  to  flying  machines.  Models  often 
signally  prove  failures  on  a  small  scale,  yet  would  be 
successful  on  a  larger. 

The  problem  is  not  an  unphilosophical  phantom,  but 
a  mathematically  demonstrated  truth,  which  needs 
only  actual  realization  to  revolutionize  the  world  for 
the  better.  That  the  air  is  navigable  can  no  longer  be 
denied. 


XII.-FUNDAMENTAL    PRINCIPLES    OF 
FLIGHT. 


In  contemplating  the  boundless  atmosphere,  we  per- 
ceive it  to  be  tenanted  by  a  multitude  of  creatures  of 
varied  form  and  size,  who  move  and  direct  themselves 
with  marvellous  ease  and  skill.  These  beings,  so  dif- 
ferent in  their  nature,   form   and  construction — from 


24 

the  proud  eagle  to  the  ' '  blood-thirsty ''  mosquito — 
resemble  one  another  in  the  possession  of  three  im- 
portant fundamental  principles  which  constitute  the 
power  of  flight.  These  are — weight  or  gravity,  sur- 
face or  resistance  of  the  atmosphere  against  it,  and 
force  or  power  of  projection. 

The  medium  in  which  the  phenomenon  of  flight  is 
produced — the  air — is  an  invisible,  impalpable,  com- 
paratively imponderable  fluid,  and  its  density  is  nearly 
800  times  less  than  that  of  water.  Hence  a  movement 
through  it  can  be  made  far  more  rapidly  than  through 
its  sister  medium.  Nevertheless,  if  agitated,  it  is  capa- 
ble of  exerting  great  pressure,  as  the  tempestuous 
storms,  overturning  fences,  unroofing  houses,  uproot- 
ing trees,  and  carrying  even  large  animals  into  the  air, 
teach  us.  Hereon  then,  that  is,  the  proper  manipula- 
tion principally  in  creating  artificial  currents  of  air, 
hinges  the  secret  of  flight,  because  this  phenomenon  is 
reproduced  in  a  manner  identical,  if  a  surface  is  moved 
against  it,  as  we  see  in  the  wings  of  flying  creatures. 


XIII.-WEIGHT. 


Weight  is  absolutely  indispensible  in  flight,  it  adds 
momentum  and  assists  the  propelling  power — with 
greater  force  comparatively  in  heavier  bodies.  A 
wooden  cannon   ball  can  fly  only  a  fraction  of  the  dis- 


25 

tance  of  an  iron  one ;  and  an  equal  weight  of  musket 
balls,  propelled  by  the  same  charge  of  powder,  will  not 
reach  near  so  far  as  the  cannon  ball,  because  of  its  con- 
solidation in  one  body  ;  and  a  feather  or  Uttle  toy  bal- 
loon can  not  only  not  be  propelled,  but  will  actually 
recoil  if  attempted.  Hence,  all  flying  animals  are 
many  hundred  times  heavier  than  air,  and  the  heaviest 
-are*  generally  the  best  flyers,  yet  require  the  least 
amount  of  surface  and  force  in  proportion. 

The  sympathy  existing  between  weight  and  power  is 
very  great.  Weight  acts  in  flight  upon  the  oblique 
surfaces  of  the  wings  in  conjunction  with  the  power 
expended,  and  thereby  husbanding  the  latter  im- 
mensely. Thus  only  are  the  denizens  of  the  air  en- 
abled to  perform  long  journeys,  while  otherwise  they 
could  retain  their  position  in  the  upper  region  but  a 
very  brief  time,  as  their  strenght  is  no  greater  than 
that  of  other  animals  and  would  soon  give  out.  Weight 
acts  on  flying  creatures  in  a  similar  manner  as  we  see 
it  in  the  clock,  where  weight  is  the  moving  power,  and 
the  pendulum  merely  regulates  its  movements. 

Of  course,  the  belief  of  many,  that  birds  have  large 
air  cells  in  their  interior,  that  those  cavities  contain 
heated  air,  and  that  this  heated  air  in  some  mysterious 
manner  contributes  to,  if  it  does  not  actually  produce, 
flight,  falls  to  the  ground  upon  the  least  reflection.  No 
argument  could  be  more  fallacious.  The  bird  is  a 
heavy,  compact,  by  no  means  bulky  body,  and  that 
trifle  of  heated  air,  or  gas,  if  such  were  the  case,  but  is 


26 

not,  which  possibly  might  help  elevation,  would  be 
but  dust  in  the  scale.  A  small  balloon  of  two  feet  di- 
ameter— a  larger  body  than  any  bird — can  lift  only 
about  a  quarter  of  a  pound.  But,  besides,  many  admi- 
rable flyers,  such  as  bats,  have  no  air  cells;  while 
many  animals,  never  intended  to  fly,  are  provided  with 
them.  It  may,  therefore,  be  reasonably  concluded  that 
flight  is  in  no  way  connected  with  air  cells,  and  the 
best  proof  that  can  be  adduced  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  it  can  be  performed  to  perfection  in  their 
absence. 


XIV.-SURFACE. 


The  next  of  the  three  properties  necessary  for  flight, 
is  the  extension  of  the  locomotive  organs  in  winged  be- 
ings— the  planes.  Although  the  wings  in  the  diflerent 
animals  differ  much  in  their  form,  texture,  construc- 
tion, number,  and  the  matter  which  composes  them, 
yet  they  resemble  one  another  in  the  expansion  and 
development  of  their  surfaces,  being  stretched  on  each 
side  of  the  body,  and  playing  the  part  of  a  parachute. 
The  animal,  therefore,  cannot  fall  like  a  stone,  in  obe- 
dience to  the  accelerated  force  of  gravity,  but  it  des- 
cends with  a  slow  velocity  ;  constant  regular,  and  con- 
siderably abated. 

This  influence,  then ,  exercised  by  the  flat  surface  on 


27 

the  fall  of  masses,  is  seen  in  a  sheet  of  paper  of  the 
same  weight  as  a  grain  of  lead,  it  will  fall  much  more 
slowly.  But  if  we  make  the  paper  a  compact  ball,  and 
flatten  the  lead  into  a  broad,  thin  sheet,  the  reverse 
result  will  be  produced,  and  the  paper  reach  the 
ground  before  the  lead  Therefore,  bodies  in  the  air 
are  light  or  heavy  in  proportion  to  their  surfaces,  and 
the  heaviest  may  become  light  by  an  alteration  of 
form.  For  successful  flight,  then,  a  just  proportion  of 
surface  and  weight  is  necessary  ;  because,  as  stated, 
the  air  being  elastic,  its  resistance  is  much  more  ef- 
fectual with  light  bodies  than  heavy  ones  ;  and  this 
proportion  is  such  that  the  extent  of  surface  is  al- 
ways in  an  inverse  ratio  to  the  weight  of  the  winged 
animal. 

The  principle  in  the  fall  of  flat  surfaces  is  strictly  ap- 
plicable to  the  bird.  Its  weight,  tending  downwards, 
and  being  situated  below  the  plain  of  suspension,  keeps 
it  well  balanced,  so  that  it  cannot  fall  head  over  heels, 
nor  rapidly.  If  the  wings  are  inclined  at  an  angle  with 
the  horizon,  the  bird  will  not  descend  vertically,  but 
gUde  along  an  inclined  plane  with  much  greater  swift- 
ness, because  the  vertical  distance  remains  unaltered  in 
the  same  space  of  time.  Kence  their  immense  hori- 
zontal velocity,  without  comparatively  any  effort. 
This  is  in  obedience  to  two  forces — gravity,  or  weighty 
and  resistance  of  surface. 


28 
XI.-POWER. 


But  for  actual  flight  a  third  force  is  required — the 
propelling  power,  the  necessary  amount  of  which  has 
greatly  been  overrated  by  many  mathematicians. 

BoreUi  estimated  the  power  of  a  three  pound  bird 
to  be  over  one  hundred  and  thirty  horses  relatively. 
But,  Navier,  more  reasonably,  calculated  a  force  of 
five  horses  sufficient  for  the  flight  of  a  pigeon.  Cou- 
lomb, again,  offset  this  "great  liberality  "  by  demon- 
strating that  the  surface  to  support  a  man  must  be  two 
miles  long  and  two  hundred  feet  wide,  with  the  power 
of  a  "Corliss  engine"  to  propel  such  a  "fifty  acre 
ranch." 

Now,  facts  prove  that  man  can,  without  danger, 
•■descend  from  an  high  elevation  under  a  surface  of  much 
less  than  fifteen  feet  diameter  ;  and  the  force  to  lift 
himself,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter,  is  also  compara- 
tively small.  He  can  walk  up  stairs,  and  likewise 
mount  upon  air,  wdiich,  properly  manipulated,  becomes 
sufficiently  sohd. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  beyond  a  doubt,  that  the 
heaviest  flying  animals  require  the  smallest  amount  of 
surface  and  power  in  proportion.  The  surface  is  less, 
because  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere  is  much 
greater  toward  one  unbroken  body  than  all  the  parts 
thereof  if  detached.  Hence  a  stork,  weighing  eight 
times  as  much  as  a  pigeon,  needs  only  five  square  feet 


•       29 

of  surface,  while  the  eight  pigeons,  with  nearly  one 
square  foot  each,  possess  together  over  seven  square 
feet ;  and  the  common  fly,  if  magnified  to  the  size  of 
the  crane,  would  show  a  surface  sixty  times  as  large. 

The  heaviest  flyers  require  the  least  amount  of 
power,  because  weight,  as  stated  before,  itself  is  power^ 
which  increases  in  a  certain  ratio.  Hence  we  find  the 
muscular  force  of  the  smaller  beings,  who  possess  little 
weight,  to  be  enormous  ;  this  is  particularly  so  with 
insects,  who  are  the  strongest  in  creation.  A  stag- 
beetle,  of  which  two  hundred  weigh  only  one  pound, 
can  lift  fourteen  ounces;  crickets  leap  eighty  times  their 
own  length,  and  the  ''lively  flea"  can  jump  through 
space  estimated  at  even  two  hundred  times  the  length 
of  its  body — which  accounts  for  the  difficulty  of  catch- 
ing it.  If  a  mouse  would  simply  reproduce  the  gait 
of  a  horse,  its  progress  would  be  about  twenty  inches 
per  minute  only,  and  cats  would  soon  find  themselves 
out  of  employment. 

Nature  has  wisely  established  a  compensation  to 
make  amends  for  the  diminutiveness  of  organs  by 
rapidity  of  movement,  and  has,  consequently,  furnished 
the  animal  with  the  necessary  power  to  produce  this 
rapidity. 

The  force  necessary  for  lifting  in  all  winged  beings 
is  not  near  so  great  as  is  generally  supposed.  The  fall 
of  a  body,  continually  accelerating,  is  seventeen  feet 
per  second,  and  a  very  great  force  would  be  necessary 
indeed  to  offset  this  gravitation,   if  that  second   were 


30       • 

allowed  to  expire  without  a  counter-movement;  but 
when  that  body  is  provided  with  a  parachute-like  ar- 
rangement, there  is  no  such  rapid  fall  of  seventeen  feet 
per  second;  and  when,  besides,  the  force  is  applied 
constantly,  thereby  counteracting  even  a  fraction  of  the 
fall,  the  power  needed  to  accomplish  this  is  but  a  trifle; 
it  is  the  principle,  to  use  a  homely  phrase,  that  "a 
stitch  in  time  saves  nine."  What  extra  strength  the 
animal  possesses  has  to  be  used  in  pursuit  or  escape, 
from  the  powerful  eagle  to  the  minutest  insect;  they 
must  be  prepared  to  exert  at  a  given  moment  all  the 
strength  that  nature  has  given  to  thorn  in  store. 

Their  strength  is  no  greater  than  that  of  fishes  or 
quadrupeds;  all  possess  surplus  power  greatly  above 
the  need  of  their  average  use,  and  the  strength  ex- 
hibited therefore  by  flying  creatures  shows  only  that 
but  a  small  portion  of  it  is  used  for  lifting  and  propel- 
ling purposes. 

Eagles  have  been  known  to  carry  off  small  deer, 
lambs,  hares,  and  even  young  children.  Many  of  the 
fishing  birds,  as  pelicans  and  herons,  can  likewise  carry 
considerable  loads,  while  the  smaller  birds  are  capable 
of  transporting  comparatively  large  twigs  for  building 
purposes.  A  swallow  can  traverse  1000  miles  at  a 
single  journey,  and  the  swift,  the  fastest  of  all,  is 
known  to  have  made  nearly  180  miles  an  hour.  The 
albatross,  despising  compass  and  land-mark,  trusts 
himself  boldly  for  weeks  together  to  the  mercy  or  fury 
of  the    mighty    ocean;    and    the   huge    condor  of  the 


31 

Andes,  as  Humboldt,  Darwin,  Orton,  and  others  in- 
form us.  lifts  himself  to  a  hight  where  no  sound  is 
heard,  and  from  an  unseen  point  surveys,  in  solitary 
grandeur,  the  wide  range  of  plain  and  mountain  below. 
He  has  been  seen  flying  over  the  Chimborazo,  and  at- 
tains, on  occasions,  an  altitude  of  six  miles. 


FLYING  CREATURES,  THEIR  PROPOR- 
TIONS, MOVEMENTS, 

I'he  great  common  characteristic  of  the  different 
winged  beings  are  the  same  throughout  all  the  modifica- 
tions of  detail.  These  are,  as  stated,  weight,  extension 
of  surface,  and  the  mechanical  application  of  the  pro- 
pelling force  ;  so  that  the  animal  is  a  gliding  plane 
part  of  which  is  fixed  and  the  other  moveable,  and  the 
whole  being  maintained  in  stable  equilibrium  by  the 
weight  of  the  body,  placed  a  httle  below  the  plane  of 
suspension. 

By  comparing  the  different  species  it  is  found,  by 
M.  de  Lucy  and  others,  that  the  extent  of  surface  is  in 
inverse  ratio  to  the  weight,  the  determination  of  this 
ratio  being  based  upon  certain  considerations.  The 
proof  of  this  is  overwhelming.  Supposing  all  flying 
€reatures  of  the  same  weight,  say  one  pound,  it  is 
found  that  the  : 

Gnat  possesses 60 

Common  by 22 

Bee 5 

Beetle    . 4 

Sparrow 3 

Pigeon        1| 

Stork  nearly 1 

Vulture I 

Crane  nearly i 

Square  feet  of  surface  per  pound. 


32 

Thus  we  find  the  gnat,  of  which  160,000  make  one 
pound,  and  which  weighs  four  hundred  and  sixty  times 
less  than  the  beetle,  has  thirteen  times  more  surface* 
comparatively.  The  sparrow  weighs  about  ten  times 
less  than  the  pigeon,  and  has  twice  as  much  surface  in 
proportion.  The  Australian  crane — one  of  the  heaviest 
birds,  it  weighs  over  twenty  pounds,  or  almost  three 
million  times  as  much  as  the  gnat — possesses  the  least 
surface — not  quite  ten  square  feet,  or  one  hundred  and 
twenty  times  less  than  that  insignificant  but  formida- 
ble animal.  Yet  its  flight  is,  gliding  softly  on  the  air, 
without  effort  or  fatigue,  with  but  Httle  exertion,  the 
longest  maintained,  and  it  can,  with  few  exceptions, 
elevate  itself  the  highest. 

In  regard  to  the  movements  of  the  wings,  there  is  a 
similar  ratio  ;  for,  while  the  mosquito  makes  over  two 
hundred  wing  strokes  per  second,  the  sparrow  makes 
only  thirteen,  the  buzzard  three,  and  so  on,  continually 
decreasing  with  heavier  bodies. 

A  word  about  bats  and  flying  fish.  Although  bats 
present  no  real  resemblance  whatever  to  birds  or  in- 
sects, but  are  much  more  like  ourselves,  they  must  be 
classed  amongst  the  creatures  of  the  air,  because  they 
are  constantly  moving  in  it,  and  governed  by  the 
same  laws. 

Their  flight,  being  somewhat  fluttering,  but  other- 
wise powerful,  true  and  perfect,  is  undoubtedly  caused, 
particularly  in  the  early  part  of  the  night,  when  feed- 
ing, by  their  darting  right  and    left   after  the  almost 


33 

invisible  numerous  insects,  which  they  devour  at  once. 

The  wing  of  the  bat  is,  like  that  of  the  bird,  concavo- 
convex,  and  also  more  or  less  twisted  upon  itself,  but 
it  differs  in  so  far  that  its  arm  is  not  covered  with 
feathers,  but  a  very  delicate  membrane,  which  forms 
the  parachute-like  wing.       _^ 

Their  nocturnal,  and  therefore  disreputable  habits, 
with  our  dislike  for  the  blood-sucking  propensity  of  a 
large  specie,  the  vampire,  has  kept  our  interest  in 
these  otherwise  harmless  and  clean  creatures  at  rather 
freezing  point.  But  they  can  be  tamed  easily,  and  are 
capable  of  giving  considerable  pleasure. 

The  flight  of  ia  shoal  of  flying-fish  as  they  shoot  forth 
from  the  dark  green  wave  in  a  glittering  throng,  gleam- 
ing brightly  in  the  sunshine,  is  a  charming  sight.  But 
these  fish  can  scarcely  be  classed  with  the  creatures  of 
the  air,  because  true  flight,  that  is  the  manipulation  of 
the  wings,  is  lacking.  They  are  mentioned  because 
they  represent,  like  the  kite,  the  first  step  toward  that 
true  flight  which  all  other  creatures  in  the  air  possess. 

They  are  capable  of  moving  through  the  air  from 
500  to  600  feet,  and  as  much  as  20  feet  above  the 
water.  The  fish  first  acquires  initial  velocity  by  a  pre- 
liminary rush  through  the  water,  when  it  throws  itself 
suddenly  into  the  air,  and,  at  the  same  moment,  spreads 
out,  kite-like,  at  a  sHght  inclination  upwards,  its  extra- 
ordinarily large  pectoral  fins.  It  keeps  up  the  great 
speed  until  its  momentum  is  exhausted,  when  the  same 
performance  is  repeated. 


34 

The  fact  in  favor  of  mechanical  flight  is  certainly 
incontrovertible  that  less  surface  and  less  power  is  re- 
quired and  flight  maintained  the  longest,  in  proportion 
to  heavier  bodies. 

It  must  be  convincing,  therefore,  that  it  is  possible 
for  man  to  apply  the  laws  of  flight  to  industrial  pur- 
poses in  the  same  manner  as  he  has  been  able,  in  these 
days,  to  apply  all  the  other  grand  physical  laws  that 
he  has  taken  the  trouble  to  study  and  fathom.  The 
law  of  surface  and  force  reigns  in  the  most  absolute 
and  exact  manner  over  all  flying  animals.  It  does  not 
stop  here.  Nature,  whose  laws  are  general  and  uni- 
versal, has  not  created  this  one  only  for  the  restricted 
compass  of  the  winged  animate  beings.  The  law  which 
sustains  on  the  water  the  leaf  and  the  straw  is  the  same 
for  the  gigantic  Great  Eastern ;  and  the  mechanical  law 
of  the  forces  which  drives  the  wheelbarrow  also  con- 
ducts on  its  iron  line  the  locomotive  and  its  endless 
train. 


XVII. -MECHANICAL  PRACTICABILITY 
OF  ARTIFICIAL   FLIGHT. 


Living  beings  have  been,  in  every  age,  compared  to 
machines,  but  it  is  only  in  the  present  day  that  the 
bearing  and  justice  of  this  comparison  are  fully  com- 
prehensible. Modern  engineers  have  created  machines 
which    execute  more  difficult  and  various  opperations 


than  animate  beings  are  capable  of;  yet  it  is  always 
from  nature  first  that  man  has  to  draw  his  inspira- 
tions. 

Of  the  different  functions  of  animal  meahanism,  that 
of  locomotion  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  important 
and  interesting  ;  and  as  we  have  brought  this  art  on 
land  and  water,  by  successfully  imitating  the  natural 
movements  of  walking  and  swimming,  to  quite  a  high 
state  of  perfection,  the  next  great  problem,  equally 
possible,  because  flight  is  a  natural  movement,  remains 
to  be  solved. 

Of  course,  as  different  as  the  wheel  of  the  locomotive 
is  from  the  limb  of  the  quadruped,  and  the  screw  of 
a  steamship  from  the  fin  of  a  fish,  so  will  the  coming 
flying  machine  differ  from  the  construction  of  bird,  bat 
or  insect. 

Walking,  swimming  and  flying  are  modifications  of, 
and  merging  into,  each  other  by  insensible  gradations; 
and  the  modifications,  resulting  therefrom,  are  necessi- 
tated by  the  amount  of  support  afforded  on,  and  in  the 
different  mediums  —  earth,  water,  air.  Although 
flight  is,  indisputably,  the  finest  of  the  different 
animal  movements,  yet  it  does  not  essentially  differ 
from  the  other  two,  as  the  material  and  forces  em- 
ployed are  literally  the  same  as  those  in  walking  and 
swimming. 

Flight  is,  therefore,  a  purely  mechanical  problem, 
and  in  compliance  with  the  law  of  decrease,  as  stated 
before,  the  surface  requisite  to  transport  bodies  in  the 


36 

air,  is  found  to  be  al30ut  one-half,  proportionately,  to 
twelve  times  the  weight. 

Applying  this  observation  to  an  apparatus  of^  say 
200  lbs.,  we  find  that  the  surface  of  a  bird  of  18  lbs, — 
about  one-twelfth  of  said  200  lbs. — to  be  10  square 
feet  ;  multiplying  this  by  twelve,  its  weight,  we  have 
l20  square  feet  of  surface,  and  of  which  one-half  ac- 
cordingly, 60  square  feet,  is  enough  for  the  support  of 
200  pounds.  Such  a  machine,  although  possessing 
much  less  surface  than  parachutes  generally  do,  is  in 
the  form  of  inclined  planes  of  proper  construction,  fully' 
sufficient  for  man  to  slide  down  safely  through  the  air, 
without  exertion,  from  an  elevation  at  least  ten  times 
the  vertical  distance,  that  is,  from  the  top  of  the  Palace 
Hotel  to  the  foot  of  Baldwin's. 

As  to  the  force  required,  although  impossible  to 
give  datas,  the  law  of  decrease  with  greater  weight 
reigns  absolute  here  also.  Man's  muscular  power  for 
tolerably  swift  horizontal  flight  is  far  greater  than 
necessary ;  and,  with  properly  constructed  contrivances, 
he  will  be  able  to  travel,  at  an  incline  upwards  ot*  one 
in  thirty,  at  least  twenty  miles  an  hour,  by  manual 
power  alone.  A  carrier  pigeon  flies,  for  a  short  time, 
at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  miles  an  hour,  and  some 
birds  much  faster.  But  in  employing  any  of  the  many 
excellent  motive  powers  at  command  now,  and  with 
larger  machines,  we  will  be  able  to  surpass  the  swiftest 
birds. 

As  for  the  objection,  that  the  fury  of  the  wind  will 


37 

hinder  artificial  flight,  it  is  refuted  by  observing  that 
^ven  a  hurricane,  which,  travehng  over  eighty 
miles  an  hour,  occurs  but  rarely,  does  hardly  prevent 
the  flight  of  fast  birds,  and  still  less  would 
that  of  a  compact  and  solid  flying  machine,  because  of 
its  greater  weight  and  momentum.  And  even  if  an 
occasional  storm  should  be  dangerous,  the  machine, 
by  its  greater  swiftness,  could  be  turned  above,  below 
or  sideways,  out  of  the  path  of  destruction,  or  it  need 
not  travel  at  such  rare  times.  Besides,  the  effect  of  the 
.storm  upon  a  body  withui  its  own  medium  is  insignifi- 
cant to  what  it  is  when  that  body  off*ers  resistance  by 
being  attached  to  another  medium,  as  ships  on  the 
water,  or  houses  and  fences  on  land. 


:XVIII.-FLYING    MACHINES    OF    THE 
PRESENT,  THEIR  DEFECTS. 


When  it  was  found  that  no  marked  improvements 
Kjould  be  made  in  balloons,  the  more  advanced  thinkers, 
turning  their  attention  in  an  opposite  direction,  com- 
imenced  to  justly  regard  the  winged  being  as  the  true 
model  for  flying  machines ;  and  experiments  are  now 
l^eing  made,  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  of  which 
all  go  to  prove  that  ''flight  is  far  more  a  question  of 
Tnechanical  adaptation,  construction  and  manipulation j 
than  of  enormous  power ^''^  which,  of  course,  in  any  ex- 


38 

periment,  must  prove  unavailable,  if  improperly  applied. 
Some  of  the  motive  engines,  lately  exhibited  in  England^ 
produced  such  remarkable  power  as  certainly  no  bird 
possesses.  One  of  four-horse  power  weighed  40 
pounds,  and  occupied  but  a  few  cubic  feet ;  another  of 
13  pounds  exerted  over  one-horse  power;  and,  at  some 
experiments  in  France  last  year,  a  steam  engine  of 
two  and  a  half  horse  power  weighed  80Ibs.;  and,  being 
applied  to  a  machine  with  two  vertical  screw  propellers 
of  12  ft.  diameter  each,  it  raised  120  lbs.  of  the  whole 
weight  of  160  lbs. 

But,  as  far  as  known,  these  different  motive  powers 
have  been  employed  so  far  only  to  elevate  and  propel 
machines  by  vertical  fau-like  contrivances — helicopterics 
or  by  aeroplanes,  pushed  forward  and  upward  by 
screw  propellers  ;  either  quite  as  irrational  as  balloon- 
ing, because  the  rigid  plane,  wedged  forward  and  up- 
ward at  a  given  angle,  in  a  straight  line,  or  in  a  circle^ 
does  not  embody  the  principles  carried  out  in  nature. 
Hence,  the  several  advocates  of  the  aeroplane  and 
helicopteric  have  met  with  but  indifferent  success. 

Perhaps  the  best  representative  model  of  a  flying 
machine  on  the  principles  of  inclined  planes,  was  that, 
of  Mr.  Stringfellow,  exhibited  in  London,  in  1868,  and 
which  occasionally  could  rise.  It  had  three  aeroplanes, 
superimposed  as  advocated  by  Wenham,  the  frames  of 
which  were  made  of  light  wood,  with  cloth  drawn 
over  it  tightly,  Hke  rigid  kites,  fixed  parallel  one  above 
the  other,  with  a  tail  attached  to  the  middle   one.     It 


39 

had  a  small  box  underneath  for  the  motive  power,  and 
a  light  screw  propeller  behind  for  pushing  it  forward. 
By  giving  the  machine  an  upward  angle,  the  planes 
strike  continually  upon  new  layers  of  air,  and  so 
cause  a  rise,  like  a  kite  pushed  from  behind.  The  whole 
structure  had  about  thirty-six  square  feet  of  surface, 
and  weighed,  including  the  steam  engine,  which  exerted 
nearly  one-half  horse  power,  under  12  pound^.  It 
proved  conclusively  that,  while  the  inclined  plane,  in  a 
practical  and  different  form,  is  necessary  for  aeorasta- 
tion,  the  secret  of  solving  the  probiem  lays  far  more 
in  the  mechanical  application  of  certain  laws  governing 
the  art  of  flight,  than  in  enormous  power. 

These  kite-form  machines  did  not  succeed,  in  spite 
of  their  great  motive  power  and  lightness,  because  the 
supporting  planes  were  not  active  and  flexible,  but  pre- 
sented passive  or  dead  surfaces,  without  power  to  ac- 
commodate themselves  to  altered  circumstances.  These 
planes  were  made  to  strike  the  air  at  a  given  angle,  in- 
stead of  continually  changing  to  suit  the  elastic  med- 
ium, and  in  which  respect  the  ordinary  kite  is  a  better 
flying  machine.  If  not  driven  with  great  velocity, 
such  a  machine  can  not  support  itself  in  the  atmos- 
phere ;  besides,  on  account  of  its  great  surface  expos- 
ed, a  strong  wind  can  easily  capsize  it ;  while  natural 
wings,  on  the  contrary,  present  small  flying  surfaces, 
and  their  great  speed  converts  the  space  through  which 
they  are  driven,  into  a  solid  basis  for  support.  This 
arrangement  enables  wings  to  seize  and  utilize  the  air, 


40 

and  renders  them  superior  to  the  adverse  currents,  not 
of  their  forming.  In  this  respect  they  entirely  differ 
from  balloons,  and  all  forms  of  fixed  aeroplanes. 

The  different  small  helicopteric  models,  relying  en- 
tirely on  the  aid  of  the  screw,  made  from  time  to  time, 
were  also  lacking,  as  stated  before,  in  some  of  the  true 
principles  of  flight;  although  some  of  these  models 
could'not  only  rise,  but  also  carry  a  certain  amount  of 
freight,  as  was  shown  by  the  delicately  constructed 
clockwork  models  of  M.  Nadar,  a  prominent  French 
scientist,  and  others.  One  remarkable  model,  exhi- 
bited some  years  ago,  was  that  of  M.  Phillips.  It  was 
made  entirely  of  metal,  weighed  two  pounds,  had  four 
two-bladed  fans  inclined  to  the  horizon  at  an  angle  of 
twenty  degrees,  and  made  to  revolve  in  opposite  direc- 
tions with  immense  energy.  The  motive  power  em- 
ployed was  obtained  from  the  combustion  of  charcoal, 
nitre  and  gypsum,  the  products  of  combustion  mixing 
with  water  in  the  boiler  and  forming  gas-charged 
steam,  which  was  delivered  at  a  high  pressure  from  the 
extremities  of  the  arms  of  the  fans,  on  the  principle 
discovered  by  Hero,  of  Alexandria. 

The  production  of  flight  by  artificial  wings  is  the 
most  ancient  method  proposed,  and  will,  undoubtedly, 
in  a  greatly  modified  form,  and  in  combination  with 
other  contrivances,  solve  the  problem ;  but  to  exactly 
imitate  natural  wings  will  be  found  as  impossible  as 
the  production  by  the  other  different  methods  proposed 
so  far. 


41 

Of  the  more  recent  attempts  at  the  sohition  of  the 
problem  by  means  of  artificial  wings,  worked  by  steam 
power,  the  perhaps  most  determined  was  that  of  Mr. 
KaufFman,  of  Glasgow.  The  machine  had  superim- 
posed aeroplanes,  similar  to  those  used  by  Stringfellow. 
The  two  wings  were  of  great  length,  narrow,  pointed 
towards  the  end,  and  were  made  to  flap  up  and  down 
somewhat  like  the  wings  of  a  bird.  The  model  ex- 
hibited weighed,  complete,  42  lbs.,  but  the  dimensions 
for  a  large  machine  were  to  be:  length,  about  30  ft.; 
hight,  5  ft.;  width,  6  ft.;  length  of  each  wing,  60  ft.; 
surface  of  each,  400  ft. ;  total  weight  of  machine,  8000 
lbs.;  nominal  power,  120  horses;  intended  speed,  60 
miles  per  hour;  with  water  supply  for  five  hours  and 
oil  as  fuel  for  ten  hours.  Besides,  a  pendule,  weighing 
85  lbs.,  and  40  ft.  in  length,  was  attached,  which  could, 
telescope-like,  be  drawn  up  when  necessary.  The 
model  was  made  exactly,  to  show  the  inventor's 
theory,  and  to  ascertain  if  the  connection  to  the  wings 
could  be  made  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  violent 
twisting  and  bending  strains  to  which  they  were  ex- 
posed. When  steam  at  a  pressure  of  over  150  lbs.  was 
turned  on,  the  wings  made  a  short  series  of  furious 
flaps  and  broke.  The  experiment  failed,  because,  to 
exactly  imitate  the  movements  of  the  long  and  delicate 
wings  of  fast-flving  birds  on  a  large  scale,  is  impossible ; 
the  leverage  to  flap  up  and  down  60  ft.  long  wings  be- 
ing simply  enormous  beyond  computation,  and  no 
material  can  be  found  strong  enough  to  withstand  it. 


42 

Another  machine,  the  propulsion  of  which  was  also 
to  be  effected  by  means  of  artificial  wings,  was  exhi- 
bited some  years  ago  in  England.  It  differed  entirely 
from  the  other  in  this  respect,  that  it  was  very  light, 
weighing  scarcely  30  lbs.,  and  was  intended  for  a  man 
to  fly  by  his  own  muscular  power.  It  had  about  70 
square  feet  of  surface,  two  short  wings,  and  the  ribs 
were  made  of  paragon  wire,  such  as  is  used  in  um- 
brellas, and  covered  with  silk.  By  a  prehminary  quick 
run,  the  inventor  could  take  short,  jump-hke  flights  of 
more  than  100  feet;  but  this  machine  was  also  in  a 
very  crude  state  of  perfection. 

These  different  practical  experiments,  although  more 
or  less  unsuccessful,  and  others  similar,  but  of  which 
many  models  were  far  more  ingenious  than  practical, 
have  at  least  established  the  certain  prospect  and  cer- 
tainty of  an  early  solution  of  the  problem.  And  were 
it  not  that  but  very  few,  comparatively,  of  the  great 
number  of  theories,  which  have  been  proposed  from 
time  to  time  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  great  ob- 
ject, have  been  submitted  to  anything  .resembling  even 
the  remotest  approach  to  practical  tests,  and  that  the 
lack  of  means  is  generally  the  insurmountable  barrier 
in  experimenting,  aerial  navigation  would  to-day  be  an 
established  fact. 


43 

XIX.-THE  PRACTICAL  FLYING  SHIP  OF 
THE  NEAR  FUTURE, 


Possessing  then,  all  the  datas  possible  on  the  subject^ 
it  is,  perhaps,  not  so  very  difficult  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed, to  arrive  at  a  satisfactory  result ;  and,  like  other 
great  inventions  before,  the  coming  air  ship  will  alsa 
be  a  rather  simple  affair.  While  it  will  not  likely  pos- 
sess such  prodigious  weight  as  8000  to  10,000  pounds,^ 
with  a  hundred  and  twenty  horse-power  steam  engine 
— sufficient  almost  for  a  man  of  war,  it  will  neither  be 
as  light  as  a  feather,  comparatively,  but  hold  the  golden 
middle. 

The  inclined  planes,  in  a  greatly  modified  form,  will 
by  no  means  be  discarded,  as  in  fact  no  flying  machine 
could  be  built  otherwise.  But,  as  stated  before,  this 
is  only  one  principle  long  recognized,  the  ABC,  so 
to  speak,  towards  the  solution  of  the  problem.  These 
planes,  in  wedging  forward,  for  certain  reasons,  should 
be  elastic,  in  some  manner,  and  which  has  not  been  at- 
tempted by  any  inventor  yet.  The  frames  and  cover- 
ing of  all  models,  built  so  far,  have  been  rigid  and  im- 
moveable, and  yet,  even  with  these  great  defects,  par- 
tial success  has  been  obtained  already. 

The  fan  or  screw  never  will  be  used  as  the  only 
means  in  propelling,  but  will  be  very  effective  in  do- 
ing service  as  a  part  of  the  whole,  with  other  con- 
trivances in  driving  and  guiding.  But  their  form  and 
style  must  be  considerably  different  from  anything 
known  at  present. 


44 

A  modified  and  peculiar  form  and  style  of  wings,  as 
mentioned  here  before,  must  also  be  employed  in  com- 
bination with  the  planes  and  fans,  to  serve  the  double  ^ 
purpose  of  driving  and  lifting.  By  the  manipulation 
of  these  wings  the  accumulating  and  compressed  air  is 
thrown  underneath  the  machine,  thereby  urging  the 
same  in  a  forward  and  upward  direction,  and  by  which 
the  planes  in  front  are  made  to  continually  rise  upon  i 
new  layers  of  the  elastic  medium,  like  a  kite  when  the 
boy  runs  forward. 

The  planes  must  be  fixed  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
can  be  set  at  different  angles  with  the  horizon,  in  order 
that  the  machine  may  rise  sooner  when  the  angle  is 
greatest,  because  of  the  greater  resistance  of  the  air 
against  a  larger  surface  exposed  ;  and  to  glide  through 
the  atmosphere  swifter,  after  elevation  has  been  at- 
tained, when  the  angle  of  the  planes  is  most  acute, 
thereby  offering  the  least  amount  of  surface  to  the 
horrizontally  opposing  air.  No  flying  creature  rises  in 
the  air  vertically,  but  ascends  at  an  incline. 

A  swallow,  one  of  the  very  best  flyers,  lifts  itself 
with  difficulty  from  the  ground.  An  eagle,  particu- 
larly after  eating,  has  to  run  some  distance  flapping  its 
wings  vigorously  before  it  can  rise.  An  insect,  pos- 
sessing considerable  spring-power  in  its  limbs,  always 
takes  a  good  jump  at  the  moment  its  wings  are  spread 
out  for  elevation,  at  an  upward  angle  forward.  With 
similar  contrivances  for  the  purpose  must  a  practical 
flying  machine  be  provided.     It  should,  in  combination 


^  45 

with  a  certain  amount  of  spring  power,  to  enable  it  ta 
rise  with  greater  ease  at  the  final  moment,  and  also  to 
reduce  the  shock  in  alighting  to  a  minimum,  have 
wheels  to  run  over  the  ground,  until  sufficient  force  and 
momentum  has  been  attained  to  launch  it  into  the 
boundless  realms  of  space. 

To  be  thoroughly  practical,  the  machine  must  be  un- 
der perfect  control,  and  be  made  to  descend  upon  any 
spot  desired  with  absolute  safety  and  ease.  This  can 
be  accomphshed  by  the  combined  effort  of  the  propeL- 
lors  and  wings.  By  exerting  the  power  of  these  con- 
trivances in  opposite  directions  the  disturbed  atmos- 
phere is  thrown  in  volumes  underneath  the  machine, 
which,  on  account  of  its  similarity  to  a  parachute, 
although  of  a  greatly  different  form,  can  be  made  to- 
descend  vertically  and  very  slow. 

The  doubt  expressed  by  many,  that  the  guidance  of 
an  air-ship  is  possible,  is  .easily  refuted.  All  bodies, 
possessing  the  propelling  force  within  them,  can  guide 
themselves  in  an  elastic  medium.  Of  this  we  have 
millions  of  examples   before  us  in  all  flying  creatures. 

Finally,  a  practical  shape  and  proper  size  and 
weight  will  form  one  of  the  most  essential  elements  in 
a  successful  flying  machine,  and  which  has  been  disre- 
garded more  or  less  so  far.  Of  course,  it  is  impossible 
to  calculate  already,  before  an  actual  machine  has  been 
built  and  datas  can  be  fixed,  the  limits  of  these  factors 
in  the  average  aerial  structure.  My  impressions  are, 
that  the  weight  of  a  single  carriage  will  be    from  400 


46 

to  500  lbs,,  inclusive;  a  motive  force  of  3  to  5  horse 
power.  It  will  have  a  total  length  of  from  forty  to  fifty- 
feet,  by  about  the  same  in  width,  from  tip  to  tip  ;  and 
a  surface  of  from  500  to  600  square  feet  will  be  more 
than  sufficient  to  sustain  a  total  weight  of  1000  lbs.; 
for  such  a  machine  will  be  capable  to  carry  from 
three  to  four  persons,  or  its  equivalent  weight  of  «ex- 
press  matter,  letters,  newspapers,  and  other  light 
freight.  Of  course,  free  mail  facilities  for  our  wise  so-  j 
Ions  will,  perhaps,  unfortunately  h^ve  to  be  barred  out. ' 

When  the  novelty  and  excitement  of  this  style  of 
travel  will  have  subsided,  we  may  take  the  next  step 
in  aerostation  by  carrying  a  much  greater  number  of 
passengers  and  heavier  freight;  not  in  a  single  machine, 
but  by  making  two  or  more  to  support  inclined  planes 
of  certain  construction  between  them.  These  planes, 
in  swift  horizontal  flight,  could  be  made  to  carry,  in 
suitable  cars  underneath,  much  more  than  their  own 
weight,  because  the  power  of  support  which  the  air 
affbrds  to  inclined  planes  at  a  great  speed  is  simply 
enormous,  amounting  to  50  lbs.  per  square  ft.  in  a 
pressure  of  100  miles  per  hour.  For  this  purpose,  the 
manner  of  placing  these  aeroplanes  one  above  the  other, 
as  proposed  by  Mr.  Wenham  many  years  ago,  would  be 
practical  to  some  extent. 

The  great  swiftness  with  which  these  machines  are 
expected  to  travel,  seems  at  first  to  rouse  fear  in  us  to 
trust  our  more  or  less  valuable  lives  into  such  a  won- 
derful   structure;   and  it  possibly  staggers  our  behef 


47 

that  such  great  speed  can  be  performed  with  any  de- 
gree  of  safety  to  brittle    bone    and    breathing  valve. 
But  all  these  objections  are  easily  refuted.     The  aerial 
traveler  sits  securely  inside  the  strong  machine,  in  no 
danger  of  catching  a  cold  from  the  strong  air-cutrent 
rushing  by,  very  much  like  the  passenger  in  a  raill^oad 
car;    and  if  of  an    inquisitive    turn   of  mind   for   the 
beauty  of  the  surrounding  panorama,  he  has  suitable 
windows  for  observation.     If  the  air  passenger  suffers 
from  gout,  rheumatism,  or  is  susceptible  to  sea-sickness, 
he  will  experience  no  inconvenience,  because  there  is 
no  jogging,  no  rumbling  over  cobble-stones  or  broken 
rails,  or  riding  on  a  heavy  sea  ;  he  will  feel  no  motion 
at  whatever  hight  he  may  be,  but  will  gUde  voluptu- 
ously— without    perception     almost — like    a    summer 
cloud  through  the  vast  ocean  of  the  aerial  fluid. 

The  machine  being  under  perfect  control,  can  be 
made  to  travel  very  slow  when  towards  the  point  of 
destination,  and  may  be  stopped  at  any  hight  to  remain 
stationary  or  leisurely  descend.  And  lastly,  speed  ap- 
pears greatly  diminished  when  the  object  is  viewed 
,  from  a  distance,  as  we  can  observe  on  a  railroad  train. 
A  telegraph  pole  standing  near  the  track  will  flit  by 
like  a  flash  of  lightning,  so  to  speak ;  but  if  any  con- 
siderable distance  off,  it  disappears  very  slow.  But 
when  an  object  is  followed  by  the  eye  from  a  consider- 
able elevation,  this  fact  is  still  more  striking.  The  eye 
can  command  at  a  glance  almost  hundreds  of  miles  of 
country,  and  a  city  can  be  seen  at  a  distance  of  at  least 


48 

fifty  miles  in  advance,  giving  the  aeronaut  ample  time 
for  preparing  a  descent,  if  so  desired.  Of  course,  he 
must  be  well  acquainted  with  landmarks,  to  know 
what  part  of  country  he  is  in;  but  this  knowledge  will 
be  acquired  much  easier  than  water  navigation. 

Such  about  will  be  the  coming  flying-machine  of  the 
near  future.  The  natural  elements,  so  far  from  pre- 
senting barriers  and  obstacles,  as  they  do  to  a  great 
extent  on  land  and  ocean  navigation,  seem  to  be  pe- 
culiarly inviting  to  aerostation. 

Previous  to  nearly  every  great  discovery,  difficulties 
have  been  thought  to  exist  which  its  completion  dis- 
solved. In  the  days  of  stage-coaching,  the  expecta- 
tions held  out  by  those  interested  in  steam  transport 
were  considered,  even  by  most  competent  and  intelli- 
gent men,  as  wholly  chimerical;  yet  the  locomotive  far 
surpasses  the  race-horse  in  speed  and  endurance.  When 
practice  proverl  and  datas  could  be  fixed,  that  smooth 
tires  met  all  the  requirements  on  railroads — in  place 
of  cogwheels  to  gear  into  racks — how  easy  all  calcula- 
tions on  adhesive  force  and  friction  then  became.  So 
with  flight. 


XX. -WHAT   THE    CHANGES    FOB   THE 
BETTER  WILL  BE. 


It   is  impossible   to  overestimate    the  benefits  which 
will  accrue  to  mankind  from  such  a  creation,     Flying 


49 

will  become  a  studied  art,  an  amusement,  an  accomplish- 
ment, and  inconvenience  from  sultry  heat,  or  freezing 
cold,  or  deadly  epidemics  will  no  longer  be  suffered. 
Flying  will  become  a  business,  a  trade,  and  the  advan 
tages  derived  from  it  for  industrial  purposes  will  be  won- 
derfully great.  New  channels  of  employment  will  be 
opened  to  thousands,  yes,  millions  of  starving  fellow- 
beings.  A  new  era  will  be  inaugurated  in  history  ; 
and  great  as  has  been  the  destiny  of  our  race,  it  will 
be  quite  outlustred  by  the  grandeur  and  magnitude  of 
coming  events'. 

Travehng  at  a  speed  of  over  one  hundred  miles  an 
hour,  distance  will  become  comparatively  anihilated. 
Cutting  through  the  air  from  San  Francisco  to  New 
York,  for  instance,  in  twenty-four  hours,  at  one-sixth 
in  cost  and  time;  far  safer,  because  of  no  irr  egulations 
nor  obstructions  of  road,  no  snow-blockades  or  unneces- 
sary delays  ;  far  cheaper,  because  of  no  great  expense 
for  outfit  or  maintenance,  the  aerial  carriage  will  soon 
become  the  great  means  of  travel  throughout  the 
world. 

The  vast  uninhabited  but  productive  regions  of  this 
globe  will  be  populated  from  overcrowded  and  im- 
poverished communities,  because  of  the  extraordinary 
cheap,  safe,  and  rapid  travel  by  flying  machines.  New 
life  will  again  be  imparted  to  enterprise,  speculation 
and  labor  ;  and  lands  will  be  cultivated  and  great  cities 
be  built  in  regions  where  the  foot  of  human  being  has 
not  trod  for  ages.         *  '         . 


50 

The  Andes  and  Rocky  Mountains  will  become  as 
familiar,  to  us  as  the  hills  of  our  own  city  ;  and  mining 
and  other  discoveries  will  follow  each  other  with  won- 
derful rapidity.  The  vexing  and  expensive  explora- 
tions in  the  interiors  of  Africa  and  AustraHa,  and  to- 
wards the  North  Pole,  will  soon  be  brought  to  a  speedy 
and  satistactory  conclusion  ;  and  some  of  the  wildest 
dreams  of  men  be  realized. 


XXI.-CONCLUDING    REMARKS. 


The  accomplishment  of  aerial  navigation,  then,  is 
within  reach;  its  practicability  can  no  longer  be  denied. 
It  will  be  one  of  the  most  glorious  and  fruitful  con- 
quests, and  of  the  highest  value  and  importance  to 
civiHzed  nations.  But  all  inventions,  and  particularly 
an  undertaking  of  such  gigantic  nature,  require  pecuni- 
ary assistance.  This  should  not.  in  our  age  of  progress, 
be  lacking  for  a  single  moment;  because,  if  for  no 
other  reason,  the  first  promoters  of  it  will  reap  such 
great  financial  benefits  therefrom  as  must  be  beyond 
their  calculation.  Singer,  Howe,  Colt,  McCormick, 
and  hundreds  of  others,  all,  with  thousands  of  friends 
so  immensely  wealthy,  bear  out  this  assertion.  Let  not 
this  enlightened  age  look  upon  a  great  invention  as  was 
done  in  Robert  Fulton's  time,  when  he  proposed  the 
steamship  to  Napoleon  in   1801.     The   plan  was  laid 


r.i 

before  a  scientific  commission,  and  these  learned  men 
reported  it  as  ''visionary'^  and  impractiiiable.  Such 
was  the  reception  which  steam  navigation,  that  has 
achieved  such  immense  results,  first  received  at  the 
hands  of  philosophy  and  capital ;  but  France  lost 
thereby,  indirectly,  the  control  of  Europe,  and  Napo- 
leon his  crown;  while  another  nation — A^merica — more 
wise,  ten  years  later  commenced  to  reap  the  benefits 
emanating  from  Fulton's  genius. 

Means,  then,  being  necessary  for  the  accomplishment 
of  this  great  object,  let  them  be  forthcoming  at  once, 
that  California  may  enjoy  the  honor  and  the  first  fruits 
of  this  great  invention. 

In  conclusion,  let  me  thank  you  for  the  kind  atten- 
tion you  have  bestowed  upon  a  weak  exponent  of  a 
great  subject.  • 


